Neo-Confucianism

From Buddhist Encyclopedia

Neo-Confucianism is a form of Confucianism that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li Ao in the Tang Dynasty. The term should not be mistaken for New Confucianism which is an effort to apply Confucianism to the 21st century.

Origins

Neo-Confucianism was a response by the Confucians to the dominance of the Taoists and Buddhists. Neo-Confucians such as Zhu Xi recognized that the Confucian system of the time did not include a thoroughgoing metaphysical system and so devised one. There were many competing views within the Neo-Confucian community, but overall, a system emerged that resembled both Buddhist and Taoist thought of the time and some of the ideas expressed in the Book of Changes (I Ching) as well as other yin yang theories associated with the Taiji symbol (Taijitu). A well known Neo-Confucian motif is paintings of Confucius, Buddha, and Lao Tzu all drinking out of the same vinegar jar, paintings associated with the slogan "The three teachings are one!"

While Neo-Confucianism incorporated Buddhist and Taoist ideas, many Neo-Confucianists claimed to strongly oppose Buddhism and Taoism. One of Han Yu's most famous essays decries the worship of Buddhist relics. Zhu Xi in particular, wrote many essays attempting to explain how his ideas were not Buddhist or Taoist, and included some extremely heated denunciations of Buddhism and Taoism.

World View

Zhu Xi's formulation of the Neo-Confucian world view is as follows. He believed that the Way (Tao) of Heaven (Tian) is expressed in principle or li (理, py lǐ), but that it is sheathed in matter or qi (氣, py qì). In this, his system is based on Buddhist systems of the time that divided things into principle (again, li), and shi (事, Pinyin shì). In the Neo-Confucian formulation, li in itself is pure and perfect, but with the addition of qi, base emotions and conflicts arise. Human nature is originally good, the Neo-Confucians argued (following Mencius), but not pure unless action is taken to purify it. The imperative is then to purify one's li. However, in contrast to Buddhists and Taoists, neo-Confucians did not believe in an external world unconnected with the world of matter. In addition, Neo-Confucians in general rejected the idea of reincarnation and the associated idea of karma.

Different Neo-Confucians had differing ideas for how to do so. Zhu Xi believed in gewu (格物, géwù), the Investigation of Things, essentially an academic form of observational science, based on the idea that li lies within the world. Wang Yangming (Wang Shouren), probably the second most influential Neo-Confucian, came to another conclusion: namely, that if li is in all things, and li is in one's heart, there is no better place to seek than within oneself. His preferred method of doing so was jingzuo (靜坐, jìngzuò), 'quiet sitting', a practice that strongly resembles zuochan or Chan (Zen) meditation.

The importance of li in Neo-Confucianism gave the movement its name, literally "The study of Li."

Bureaucratic Examinations

Neo-Confucianism became the interpretation of Confucianism whose mastery was necessary to pass the bureaucratic examinations by the Ming, and continued in this way through the Qing dynasty until the end of the examination system in 1905. However, many scholars such as Benjamin Elman have questioned the degree to which their role as the orthodox interpretation in state examinations reflects the degree to which both the bureaucrats and Chinese gentry actually believed those interpretations, and point out that there were very active schools such as Han learning which offered competing interpretations of Confucianism.

The competing school of Confucianism was called the Evidential School or Han Learning and argued that Neo-Confucianism had caused the teachings of Confucianism to be hopelessly contaminated with Buddhist thinking. This school also criticized Neo-Confucianism for being detached from reality with empty philosophical speculation that was unconnected with reality.

Confucian Canon

The Confucian canon as it exists today was essentially compiled by Zhu Xi. Zhu codified the canon of Four Books (The Great Learning, Doctrine of the Mean, The Analects of Confucius, and Mencius) which in the subsequent Ming and Qing Dynasties were made the core of the official curriculum for the civil service examinations.

List of Neo-Confucians

China

• Ouyang Xejiu (1007–1072)
• Shao Yong (1012–1077) is an autodidact interested in numerology that refused political career and left a book of poems and a treatise on cosmogony, the Huangji jingshi shu. He studied mostly the Book of Changes and Zhu Xi, while he disliked Shao's links with Taoist monks, drew his inspiration from this book.

• Su Shi, aka Su Dongpo (1037–1101)
• Su Che (1039–1112), Su Shi's brother.
• Sun Lutang
• Cheng Yi
• Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi's brother.
• Zhu Xi (1130–1200)
• Lu Xiangshan aka Lu Jiuyuan (1139–1193)
• Zhang Sanfeng
• Wang Yangming aka Wang Shouren

Japan

• Fujiwara Seika (1561–1619)
• Hayashi Razan (1583–1657)
• Nakai Tōju (1608–1648)
• Yamazaki Ansai (1619–1682)
• Kumazawa Banzan (1619–1691)
• Kinoshita Jun'an (1621–1698)
• Yamaga Sokō (1622–1685)
• Itō Jinsai (1627–1705)
• Kaibara Ekken (aka Ekiken) (1630–1714)
• Satō Naokata (1650?–1719)
• Asami Keisai (1652–1712)
• Arai Hakuseki (1657–1725)
• Muro Kyūsō (1658–1734)
• Miyake Sekian (1665–1730)
• Ogyū Sorai (1666–1728)
• Amenomori Hōshū (1668–1755)
• Itō Tōgai (1670–1736)
• Matsumiya Kanzan (1686–1780)
• Goi Ranshū (1697–1762)
• Nakai Chikuzan (1730–1804)
• Ōshio Heihachirō (1793–1837)
• Yamada Hōkoku (1805–1877)