Pāli Canon

http://Buddhism.2be.net/Pāli_Canon

From Buddhist Encyclopedia

The Pali Canon is the standard scripture collection of the Theravada Buddhist tradition.<ref>Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism, Routledge, London, 1988, page 3</ref> It was written down from oral tradition in the last century B.C.E.<ref>Gombrich, page 20</ref> These scriptures are the earliest surviving Buddhist texts,<ref> Hinüber, Handbook of Pali Literature, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 1996, page 5</ref> and are also in Mahayana Buddhism traditionally regarded as authentic.<ref>Harvey,Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, 1990, pages 90f</ref> They are composed in the Pali language, and fall into three general categories, called pitaka (piṭaka, basket) in Pali. Because of this, the Buddhist canon is traditionally known as the tipitaka (tipiṭaka; Sanskrit, tripitaka, tripiṭaka) (three baskets). <ref>Gombrich, page 4</ref>

Origins

According to the scriptures a council was held shortly after the Buddha's death to collect and preserve his teachings. It is traditionally believed by Theravadins that most of the Pali Canon was recited orally from this time, with only a few later additions. However, most scholars conclude that substantial additions must have been made later. The evolution of the Scriptures over early centuries has not yet been adequately studied by scholars,<ref>Hinüber, pages 24-6</ref> and there are wide differences of opinion among scholars on to what extent the teachings may be traced to the historical Buddha himself.<ref>Gombrich, page 20</ref>

The sriptures themselves tell how the Buddha, shortly before he died, told his followers that they should accept something alleged to be his teaching if it harmonized with the teachings they already had. This seems to have been followed over the centuries. The details of the evolution of the Canon are obscure, but all its books seem to have evolved over a long period. Something can be said about the approximate relative average dates of the books. Most scholars would regard the following chronological arrangement as roughly correct.Template:Cn

• Suttavibhanga & Khandhaka; Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta & Anguttara Nikayas; Suttanipata
• Dhammapada, Udana, Itivuttaka, Theragatha, Therigatha, Jataka
• Vimanavatthu, Petavatthu, Niddesa, Patisambhidamagga, Abhidhamma Pitaka
• Apadana, Buddhavamsa, Cariyapitaka
• Parivara & Khuddakapatha
• Nettipakarana, Petakopadesa, Milindapanha

Information about these books can be found in the Contents section below, and further details in separate articles.

According to the Sinhalese chronicles, the Pali Canon was written down in the reign of King Vattagamini (Vaṭṭagamiṇi) (last century B.C.E.) in Sri Lanka, at the fourth Buddhist council. Little if anything was added to the Canon after this.<ref>Harvey, page 3</ref>

Contents of the Canon

For fuller information, see standard references on Pali literature.<ref>Norman, Pali Literature, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1983; Hinüber,op. cit.</ref>

Vinaya Pitaka

The first category, the Vinaya Pitaka (vinayapiṭaka), is mostly concerned with the rules of the sangha, both monks and nuns. The rules are preceded by stories telling how the Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and analysis. According to the stories, the rules were devised on an ad hoc basis as the Buddha encountered various behavioral problems or disputes among his followers. This pitaka can be divided into three parts.

• Suttavibhanga (-vibhaṅga): commentary on the Patimokkha, a basic code of rules for monks and nuns that is not as such included in the Canon
• Khandhaka : other rules grouped by topic
• Parivara (parivāra): analysis of the rules from various points of view

Five other complete vinayas survive, one in Tibetan and four others in Chinese. In addition there are portions of a number in various languages. Comparison of the Patimokkhas finds major rules identical or almost so, but large-scale differences in minor rules. The explanations sometimes differ, as do the origin stories. The khandhakas cover mostly the same topics but differ in details. The equivalents of the Parivara are quite different works from it and each other, with little in common. Internal evidence of a late date for the Parivara is found in its inclusion of a long list of teachers in Ceylon.

Sutta Pitaka

The second category is the Sutta Pitaka (literally "basket of threads", or of "the well spoken"; Sanskrit: Sutra Pitaka, following the former meaning) which consists primarily of accounts of the Buddha's teachings. The Sutta Pitaka has five subdivisions or nikayas. The first four are in a fairly uniform style, giving teachings by the Buddha, or occasionally his disciples, in a prose narrative framework, which is often reduced to a standard formula or sometimes left to be understood. Some other schools did not include the equivalent of the fifth in their canons.

Digha Nikaya

(dīghanikāya): 34 long discourses. A Chinese equivalent exists, usually thought to belong to the Dharmaguptaka school. It contains 30 discourses, of which 28 are versions of Pali suttas, but with many greater or lesser differences. The other 2 are not found in Pali. As to the 6 Pali suttas not found here, it is impossible to be certain that the Dharmaguptakas did not have versions of them elsewhere in their Canon, most of which is lost. In addition there are odd sutras in various languages from various schools, with similar variations in detail.

Majjhima Nikaya

152 medium discourses. A Chinese version exists, from the Sarvastivada, with 222 discourses, of which 98 correspond to the Pali, again with variations. Many of the "missing" discourses in each language are found elsewhere in the other. The greater degree of difference between the two versions as compared with the Digha could be accounted for by the fact that the Sarvastivada schism was earlier than the Dharmaguptaka one. Again individual discourses in various languages are found.

Samyutta Nikaya

(saṃyutta-): thousands of short discourses in fifty-odd groups by subject, person etc. A Chinese version exists, from the Sarvastivada. Most of the groups (samyuttas) are the same, but not always the individual suttas. Again, many "missing" suttas are found elsewhere in the other language. There also survive parts of another version in Chinese.

Anguttara Nikaya

(aṅguttara-): thousands of short discourses arranged numerically from ones to elevens. A Chinese version exists, which only goes up to tens. This is usually thought to belong to the Mahasanghikas. As they separated in the very first schism, this would account for the fact that only about a quarter of the material is shared between the two versions. Again, much of the "missing" material is found elsewhere in the other language. However, Professor Warder has suggested that this version is actually Dharmaguptaka, and that this nikaya has a late average date; in fact he claims the four prose nikayas are in order of average date. It has also been said that the Chinese version includes Mahayana interpolations.

Khuddaka Nikaya

A miscellaneous collection of works in prose or verse. The Burmese edition includes 18 books. The Sinhalese edition includes 1-17; the Thai edition includes 1-15.

1. Khuddakapatha
2. Dhammapada
3. Udana
4. Itivuttaka
5. Suttanipata
6. Vimanavatthu
7. Petavatthu
8. Theragatha
9. Therigatha
10. Jataka
11. Niddesa
12. Patisambhidamagga
13. Apadana
14. Buddhavamsa
15. Cariyapitaka
16. Nettipakarana
17. Petakopadesa
18. Milindapanha

In this case there is some evidence within the traditional Theravada literature on relative dating. The commentary on the Digha gives lists of contents of this nikaya according to Digha and Majjhima reciters: 2-12 and 2-15 respectively. The subcommentary explains this by saying that the "missing" books were counted as parts of others, but scholars conclude that 13-15 were added later, and 1 later still. The standard list in the commentaries and other mediaeval Pali literature is 1-15. So far, the earliest confirmed example of inclusion of anything beyond this is from about 1800, when the head of the Burmese sangha regarded at least 16 and 17 as canonical; his explanation of their omission from earlier lists was the same as that given in the similar case above, that they had been counted as parts of other books.<ref>Journal of the Pali Text Society, volume XXVIII</ref> It must be remembered that inclusion in the canon and actual writing are not the same. Other early schools of Buddhism had versions of some of these books, but some did not consider them strictly canonical.

Khuddakapatha

(-pāṭha): nine short texts in prose or verse. This seems to have been intended as an introductory handbook for novices. Most of its contents are found elsewhere in the Canon.

Dhammapada

423 verses in 26 chapters by topic. Incomplete manuscripts of versions in other indian dialects have been found, and there is also a Tibetan version, whose Sanskrit title is Udanavarga. The Chinese version appears to be an expansion of the Pali rather than a version from another school. Comparison gives similar results to the above: there are many common verses, but many found in someversions but not others. About half the Pali verses are found elsewhere in the canon.

Udana

(udāna): 80 inspired utterances, mostly verse, with introductory stories. No other versions survive, but some other schools are known to have had corresponding books.

Itivuttaka

112 prose teachings of the Buddha followed by verse paraphrases or complements. These are arranged numerically, from ones to fours. A Chinese version exists, which only goes up to threes.

Suttanipata

(-nipāta): poems, some in prose frameworks. In five parts, of which the first four contain 54 poems. The fifth part is a single poem in 16 sections, plus an introduction and a conclusion, which latter includes a little prose. No corresponding work is known to have existed in any other school, though Lamotte has argued that such a work was used by the author of the Ta chih tu lun. However, much of the content of this book is known separately in other schools, including the whole of the last two parts.

Vimanavatthu

(vimāna-): 85 poems telling of celestial mansions resulting from good karma. Similar literature is found in other schools.

Petavatthu

51 poems telling of the suffering of ghosts resulting from bad karma. Similar literature is found in other schools, and a few verses are found in the Mahavastu, which belongs to the Lokottaravada school.

Theragatha

(-gāthā): 264 poems ascribed to monks. Some of these are found in other schools.

Therigatha

(therī-): 73 poems ascribed to nuns. Again, some are found elsewhere.

Jataka

(jātaka): 547 poems said to relate to the Buddha's previous lives. Similar literature is widespread. The Mahavastu includes versions of a number of these. It appears from the Dipavamsa that the Mahasanghikas had a version of this book in their Canon, but differing from the Pali.

Niddesa

Commentary on parts of Suttanipata: the last two parts and one other sutta. Traditionally ascribed to Sariputta. No version known to have existed in any other school, though it is mentioned in the Petakopadesa, which may have originally come from another school.

Patisambhidamagga

(paṭisambhidā-): 30 treatises on various topics. Traditionally ascribed to Sariputta. No version known to have existed in any other school, but Professor Warder has argued that it may be the only surviving version of an early abhidhamma work.

Apadana

(apadāna): about 600 poems, most telling how their authors performed a meritorious act in a distant past life, resulting in favourable rebirths and eventual nirvana. There are 589 in the Pali Text Society's edition, 603 in the Sixth Council edition and 592 in a number of others. Similar literature is found in other schools, and one of the poems is also found in a Sarvastivada work.

Buddhavamsa

(-vaṃsa): short verse book, mainly telling of the previous 24 Buddhas and the current Buddha's meritorious acts towards them in his previous lives. The last 6 of these previous Buddhas are mentioned in the first four nikayas, and some of the others are in the Mahavastu. There is no version of this work known in other schools. However, the idea of "perfections", given here, is also found elsewhere.

Cariyapitaka

(cariyā-): 35 poems telling of the Buddha's practice of 7 of the perfections in his previous lives. There is no specific equivalent known from other schools.

Nettipakarana and Petakopadesa

(nettipakaraṇa, nettippakaraṇa or just netti; peṭakopadesa): these two books, which have a large amount of overlap, present methods of interpretation. In the translator's interpretation, they teach those who already understand the teaching how to explain it to others, but Professor Warder claims their application is more general. The translator also says the Netti is a revised edition of the Petakopadesa, but this has been questioned by Professor von Hinüber. There is a reference in a Chinese source which describes a work apparently similar to these, forming (part of?) the abhidhamma of the Prajñaptivada school. There is also a Chinese version of one chapter of the Petakopadesa.

Milindapanha

(-pañha or -pañhā): a dialogue between King Menander of Bactria and the monk Nagasena. This is found in Chinese, but in a much shorter form. Professor Winternitz says the parts found in Chinese are much superior in literary quality.<ref>History of Indian Literature, German 1927</ref>

Abhidhamma Pitaka

The third category, the Abhidhamma Pitaka (literally "beyond the dhamma", "higher dhamma" or "special dhamma", Sanskrit: Abhidharma Pitaka), is a collection of texts which give a systematic philosophical description of the nature of mind, matter and time. There are seven books in the Abhidhamma Pitaka.

• Dhammasangani (-saṅgaṇi or -saṅgaṇī): enumeration, definition and classification of dhammas
• Vibhanga (vibhaṅga): analysis of 18 topics by various methods, including those of the Dhammasangani
• Dhatukatha (dhātukathā): deals with interrelations between ideas from the previous two books
• Puggalapannatti (-paññatti): explanations of types of person
• Kathavatthu (kathā-): over 200 debates on points of doctrine
• Yamaka: applies to 10 topics a procedure involving converse questions (Is X Y? Is Y X?)
• Patthana (paṭṭhāna): analysis of 24 types of condition

No early scool of Buddhism is known not to have had an Abhidhamma PitakaTemplate:Cn (the Sautrantikas were a late reaction) and a number are known to have had one. Some scholars believe the Mahasanghikas did not have a Abhidhamma PitakaTemplate:Cn. Only one or two other (than the Theravadin) Abhidhammas survive. That of the Sarvastivada is also in seven books, of which one survives complete only in Tibetan, the others in Chinese. In addition there is also in Chinese a work referred to as the Sariputrabhidharmasastra, which may well be (part of?) the Abhidharma Pitaka of some school, perhaps the dharmaguptaka. Comparison of the Pali with the seven Sarvastivada works finds them quite different, albeit with some common material. Some scholars consider the various Abhidharma Pitakas to be simply the various schools' attempts to systematize the teachings of the suttas. Others argue that there is a common methodology to them, which must go back to the early period, and perhaps the Buddha himself, and that this is an approach different from, and parallel to, that of the suttas, and not simply derived from them.

Texts and translations

The climate of Theravada countries is not conducive to the survival of manuscripts. Apart from brief quotations in inscriptions and a two-page fragment from the eighth or ninth century found in Nepal, the oldest manusripts known are from late in the fifteenth century, and there is not very much before the eighteenth.

The first complete printed edition of the Canon was in 1900.<ref>Günter Grönbold, Der buddhistische Kanon: eine Bibliographie, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1984, page 12</ref> The following editions of the Pali text of the Canon are readily available in the West.

• Pali Text Society edition, 1877–1927 (a few volumes subsequently replaced by new editions), 57 volumes including indexes, individual volumes also available separately (website)
• Thai edition, 1925/6–7/8, 45 volumes, electronic transcript by budsir: Buddhist scriptures information retrieval
• Sixth Council edition, Rangoon, 1954–6, 40 volumes, electronic transcript by Vipassana Research Institute available online or on CD-ROM (p&p only), from the Institute
• Sinhalese (Buddha Jayanti) edition, 1957–c.1991, 58 volumes including parallel Sinhalese translations, transcript in Pali Canon Online Database(not yet fully proofread)

English translations of most of the Canon are available from the Pali Text Society, founded by British civil servant T.W. Rhys Davids. Translations of some books are also available from other publishers; see Wisdom Books for details.

The Canon in the tradition

The Canon is traditionally described as the Word of the Buddha (Buddhavacana), though this is obviously not intended in a literal sense, since the Canon includes teachings by disciples.<ref>Gombrich, page 20</ref>

An official view is given by a spokesman for the Buddha Sasana Council of Burma:<ref>Morgan, Path of the Buddha, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1956, pages v, 71</ref>the Canon contains everything needed to show the path to nirvana; the commentaries and subcommentaries are useful in understanding it and faithful to its teachings but not infallible. Commentaries on most of the Canon were written down from oral tradition at the same time as the Canon itself, but in Sinhalese, not Pali. They were edited and translated into Pali in the fourth or fifth century, traditionally by Buddhaghosa, though his authorship of some has been questioned by some scholars; later writers produced commentaries on other parts of the Canon, and also subcommentaries on commentaries.<ref>Gombrich, pages 153f</ref> For more information, see John Bullitt's "Beyond the Tipitaka: A Field Guide to Post-canonical Pali Literature" (2002)[1].

See also

• Buddhist texts
• Tripitaka Koreana

External links

• Guide to Tipitaka– Online transcript of a book by Professor U Ko Lay giving a detailed account of the contents of the Burmese edition of the Canon.

English translations

• Access to Insight has many suttas translated into English
• Ida B. Wells Memorial Sutra Library
• Most of the Pali Canon in Pali, and much in Sinhala and English of Metta.lk (Sri Lanka)
• Tipitaka Online of Nibbana.com (Myanmar)

Other

• Hundreds of free buddhist talks and huge forum.
• The Pali Text Society
• Tipitaka Network
• Online Pali-English Dictionary
• Buddhist Teachings